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Ethics in Surgery
Historical Perspective
Thomas Tung, MD;
Claude H. Organ, Jr, MD
Arch Surg. 2000;135:10-13.
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INTRODUCTION
Ethics codes and guidelines date back to the origins of medicine in virtually all civilizations. Developed by the medical practitioners of each era and culture, oaths, prayers, and codes bound new physicians to the profession through agreement with the principles of conduct toward patients, colleagues, and society. Although less famous than the Hippocratic oath, the medical fraternities of ancient India, seventh-century China, and early Hebrew society each had medical oaths or codes that medical apprentices swore to on professional initiation.1 The Hippocratic oath, which graduating medical students swear to at more than 60% of US medical schools, is perhaps the most enduring medical oath of Western civilization.2-3 Other oaths commonly sworn to by new physicians include the Declaration of Geneva (a secular, updated form of the Hippocratic oath formulated by the World Medical Association, Ferney-Voltaire, France)2, 4 and the Prayer of Moses Maimondes, . . . [Full Text of this Article]
THE HIPPOCRATIC OATH
THE AMA CODE OF MEDICAL ETHICS
A HIPPOCRATIC OATH FOR THE 20TH CENTURY
ETHICS AND SURGERY
CONCLUSIONS
From the Department of Surgery, University of California, Davis–East Bay, Oakland.
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